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Religious Language (1)

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The Classic Theory of Divine Attributes

 

            The discussion of the theory of Divine attributes was of crucial importance both in medieval Jewish philosophy and in kabbala, as well as in other religious writings.  The roots of this debate can be traced to the Scriptures themselves, translations of the Scriptures, and the writings of our Sages.  Thus, for example, the Rambam points out the story in tractate Berakhot about a person who was harshly criticized by R. Chanina for applying so many descriptive terms to God.  In the writings of the Sages we find ample analyses of the Divine attributes and their meanings.  For example, our Sages discuss the attributes of divinity as derived from the scriptural use of the Divine names.  This discussion is reflected in the Kuzari.

 

            In the Middle Ages, the theory of Divine attributes was very popular.  Clearly, the Sages wished to underscore the battle against anthropomorphism; however, this battle was not the central topic of debate in medieval times.  Although the Rambam writes much about his objections to physical descriptions of God, he stresses that the point he wishes to make is not about an issue which has already been discussed and satisfactorily resolved, for example in Rasag's book Emunot Ve-de'ot.  In the Rambam's view, the problem lies not in the physical descriptions of God, but at a higher level.  These descriptions or Divine attributes must pass the philosophical critique.  Perhaps even more sophisticated terms such as wise, capable, living, omnipotent and omniscient, also describe a human reality, albeit not as obviously.  In fact, the wording and formulation of the Divine attributes creates more complex religious and theological problems.

 

            What can we say about God?  This question addresses the essence of the theory of Divine attributes.  What caused philosophers to take such extreme positions on this issue?  We will choose to focus on one of the many causes which influenced this development: the idea of Divine unity.

 

Divine Unity

 

            The Rambam writes that the concept of Divine unity is the axis of our faith; all of the Jewish religion revolves around  this idea.  The centrality of the commandment to declare God's unity, in the phrase "Hear O Israel the Lord our God the Lord is One," illustrates and emphasizes the religious significance of this concept.  The concept of Divine unity can be interpreted in four different ways.

            1. Aggregate numerical unity: God is one and not two.

            2. Sequential numerical unity.  This is the source of the great emphasis in philosophy on God's being the first, and its scriptural parallel, "I am first and I am last."

            3. Medieval philosophy chose to emphasize the indivisibility of God's unity.  This focus had a powerful effect upon the development of the theory of Divine attributes.  Unity means something which is not a composite.  There is no compound in God's essence, and therefore physical description of God is absolutely forbidden.  The belief in God's unity compels us to read the biblical text more accurately and honestly, and, at times, to depart from the more obvious interpretation of the text.  However, the belief in Divine unity not only forbids us to assume the existence of a Divine anatomy, such as eyes and hands; it also prohibits the assumption of philosophical complexity.  The culmination of this position appeared in the claim that no statement containing a subject and predicate may refer to God.  If we claim that God is wise, we have given Him a particular quality.  Philosophical thought struggled with the problem of creating a religious language without violating this principle.  This philosophical problem is the source of the statements that God's wisdom is not separate from His essence, or that His wisdom is not additional to His essence, or that His wisdom is of a different genus than our own, or that He and His wisdom are one.

            The danger which Jewish philosophers detected in describing Divine qualities finds expression in Christian philosophy, which used them to justify the doctrine of the trinity.

            4. The fourth principle is central to the Rambam's thought: God's oneness is totally different than any other.  Unity becomes uniqueness.  We may not attribute to God a quality used to describe a created being.

 

Rihal and the Rambam

 

            To understand the approaches of these two great philosophers, we must first create a kind of catalogue, defining what may be said about someone or something, about a person or an object.  Various philosophers have used this approach, and each one had his own manner of classification.  The Rambam had his own unique method of categorization.  We will try to briefly describe the various categories defined by these philosophers.  They cover the following range of possibilities:

Incidental qualities

Essential qualities

Relative qualities

Behavioral qualities

Negational qualities

 

Incidental Qualities

 

            To understand this concept, we will compare these qualities to their philosophical counterpart, essential qualities.  We may say that John is blond or tall.  However, we can imagine that John has undergone an operation and is no longer blond or tall.  These qualities change in any case during the course of one's life.  They do not define John's essence; they merely attach themselves to his essence.  These are incidental qualities.  To borrow a phrase from Professor Yeshayahu Leibowitz, we could say that to speak of the incidental qualities of a particular being is like speaking about its anatomy.

 

Essential Qualities

 

            This is a much more limited group of qualities, which actually define John; if we were to alter one of them, the person before us would no longer be John.  For example, if we were to change the fact that John is a rational, thinking being, he would no longer be John.

 

            All the philosophers have agreed in negating the possibility of Divine incidental qualities, because these qualities assume the compound nature of the being described.  Essential qualities remain to be discussed.  These are particularly interesting, and there is no reason not to assume that they may be attributed to God.  However, here we must say, following the Rambam's footsteps, that we are blocked by the limitations of human knowledge.  This fact is expressed in the classic medieval phrase "Lu yeda'ativ, hayitiv" - if I understood Him, I would be Him.  In other words, if I knew God's essence, then I myself would be God.  Only God can know His true essence.

 

            When we objected to literal interpretations of the physical descriptions of God, we claimed that God is beyond the perception of the senses.  When we begin to doubt the possibility of knowing the essential qualities of God, we are stating that God is beyond human perception and understanding. In the words of the religious poem, An'im Zemirot:

 

"I speak of Thy Glory,

and I have not seen You;

I liken You, name You,

and I do not know You."

 

            I compare You to other things, and I call You various names, but in essence, I do not know You.

 

Relative Qualities

 

            Relative qualities are beyond essential qualities.  For example, if we say about John that he is a grandfather or an uncle, it is possible that a nephew may be born to him and he would not know about it.  It is therefore difficult to say that he has changed since becoming an uncle.  We can assume relative qualities for God, but here the Rambam once again objects.  The Rambam maintains that if there is a particular relationship between A and B, this means that A and B have a common quality.

 

Behavioral Qualities

 

            "An'im Zemirot" continues:

 

"Your greatness and power

are described by the strength of Your actions.

You have been likened, and not according to Your essence

and You have been described according to Your actions."

 

            The essential qualities ("according to Your essence") are inaccessible to man.  However, another path is open: "according to Your actions," the perception of God's behavioral qualities.  Next, we will add the negational qualities to these.

 

            When describing behavioral qualities we do not speak directly about God but about His actions.  Let me illustrate this idea by way of a parable.  We use electricity in our kitchens, and it acts upon various appliances, such as the oven and the refrigerator.  The electricity actually does opposite actions in these appliances: heating and cooling.  We can learn many things about electricity, its magnetic and chemical effects, but we still do not know anything about its essence.  Most of the biblical descriptions of God describe His behavior, and not His essence.

 

(This lecture was translated by Gila Weinberg.)

 

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